The vast majority of chimpanzees and bonobos had access to large tracts of tropical forest (5–40 hectares) during the day. Animal husbandry and research complied with the “PASA Primate Veterinary Healthcare Manual” and the policies of Chimpanzee Sanctuary & Wildlife Conservation Trust, Uganda, Tchimpounga Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Republic of Congo and Lola ya Bonobo Sanctuary, Democratic Republic of Congo. The study was approved by an internal ethics committee at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. The presented study was non-invasive and strictly adhered to the legal requirements of the countries in which it was conducted. However, given their greater dependence on a larger range of tools in the wild chimpanzees are likely to outperform bonobos on tasks relating to tool use and causality. With their more cautious temperament, , social tolerance, , and passive coping style bonobos are more likely to outperform chimpanzees in theory of mind tasks, mirroring the positive relationship between shy temperament and theory of mind performance in young children. even though relative to other apes these two species are highly genetically and ecologically similar). In contrast, a socio-ecological model predicts that elements of the battery testing skills related to significant behavioral differences between the two species will reveal species differences in cognitive performance (i.e. geometric gaze-following: gestural communication:, quantitative discrimination: liquid conservation: tool properties: motoric inhibitory control: ), phylogenetic inertia predicts few if any significant species differences between the two Panin species. Given high levels of genetic and ecological similarities, as well as similar cognitive performance on a range of social and physical tasks (e.g. The range of cognitive tasks administered has been designed to test the two major evolutionary hypotheses regarding potential species differences in performance. (Ch = Chimpanzee, Bo = Bonobo, f = female, m = male). The battery of tasks included numerous items assessing a variety of cognitive skills in both the physical and social domains (Primate Cognition Test Battery: PCTB,, and see Table 1 and Methods S1 ). We tested a large number of bonobos and we compared them to similarly aged chimpanzees. In order to test these hypotheses, in the current study we looked for cognitive similarities and differences in juvenile and adult bonobos and chimpanzees using a broad spectrum of 16 cognitive tasks covering both physical and social cognition. Given recent results with young children in which a clear connection between shy temperament and “theory of mind” skills has been demonstrated, we might expect bonobos to have better social-cognitive skills than chimpanzees. On the other hand, bonobos are viewed as being more socially cooperative, and they are temperamentally shyer of new things and more tolerant of others in feeding situations. This might suggest different skills of causal analysis, since using tools effectively requires an understanding of the physical requirements of the situation. For example, in their natural habitats, chimpanzees are extractive foragers who use many different types of tools to obtain food from challenging places, whereas bonobos rely on tools very little. Despite their evolutionary closeness, the behavior of these two great ape species differs in important ways, and this might lead us to hypothesize that their cognitive skills differ correspondingly. Chimpanzees and bonobos are humans' closest living relatives (the common ancestor of all three was around 6 million years ago), and are themselves very closely related (common ancestor around 2 million years ago).
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